Extensions of the Laws of Inheritance

Incomplete Dominance

Mendel’s results, demonstrating that traits are inherited as dominant and recessive pairs, contradicted the view at that time that offspring exhibited a blend of their parents’ traits. However, the heterozygote phenotype occasionally does appear to be intermediate between the two parents. For example, in the snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus (Figure 9.12), a cross between a homozygous parent with white flowers (C^WC^W) and a homozygous parent with red flowers (C^RC^R) will produce offspring with pink flowers (C^RC^W). (Note that different genotypic abbreviations are used for Mendelian extensions to distinguish these patterns from simple dominance and recessiveness.) This pattern of inheritance is described as incomplete dominance, meaning that one of the alleles appears in the phenotype in the heterozygote, but not to the exclusion of the other, which can also be seen. The allele for red flowers is incompletely dominant over the allele for white flowers. However, the results of a heterozygote self-cross can still be predicted, just as with Mendelian dominant and recessive crosses. In this case, the genotypic ratio would be 1 C^RC^R : 2 C^RC^W : 1 C^WC^W, and the phenotypic ratio would be 1:2:1 for red:pink:white. The basis for the intermediate color in the heterozygote is simply that the pigment produced by the red allele (anthocyanin) is diluted in the heterozygote and therefore appears pink because of the white background of the flower petals.

Figure 9.12 These pink flowers of a heterozygote snapdragon result from incomplete dominance. (credit: “storebukkebruse”/Flickr)

Codominance

A variation on incomplete dominance is codominance, in which both alleles for the same characteristic are simultaneously expressed in the heterozygote. An example of codominance occurs in the ABO blood groups of humans. The A and B alleles are expressed in the form of A or B molecules present on the surface of red blood cells. Homozygotes (I^AI^A and I^BI^B) express either the A or the B phenotype, and heterozygotes (I^AI^B) express both phenotypes equally. The I^AI^B individual has blood type AB. In a self-cross between heterozygotes expressing a codominant trait, the three possible offspring genotypes are phenotypically distinct. However, the 1:2:1 genotypic ratio characteristic of a Mendelian monohybrid cross still applies (Figure 9.13).

Figure 9.13 This Punnet square shows an AB/AB blood type cross

Multiple Alleles

Mendel implied that only two alleles, one dominant and one recessive, could exist for a given gene. We now know that this is an oversimplification. Although individual humans (and all diploid organisms) can only have two alleles for a given gene, multiple alleles may exist at the population level, such that many combinations of two alleles are observed. Note that when many alleles exist for the same gene, the convention is to denote the most common phenotype or genotype in the natural population as the wild type (often abbreviated “+”). All other phenotypes or genotypes are considered variants (mutants) of this typical form, meaning they deviate from the wild type. The variant may be recessive or dominant to the wild-type allele.

An example of multiple alleles is the ABO blood-type system in humans. In this case, there are three alleles circulating in the population. The I^A allele codes for A molecules on the red blood cells, the I^B allele codes for B molecules on the surface of red blood cells, and the i allele codes for no molecules on the red blood cells. In this case, as mentioned, the I^A and I^B alleles are codominant with each other and are both dominant over the i allele. Although there are three alleles present in a population, each individual only gets two of the alleles from their parents. This produces the genotypes and phenotypes shown in Figure 9.14. Notice that instead of three genotypes, there are six different genotypes when there are three alleles. The number of possible phenotypes depends on the dominance relationships between the three alleles.

Figure 9.14 Inheritance of the ABO blood system in humans is shown.

Sex-Linked Traits

In humans, as well as in many other animals and some plants, the sex of the individual is determined by sex chromosomes—one pair of non-homologous chromosomes. Humans may identify as being male, female, neither of these, both, or other gender(s) independently of these chromosomes, but the sex chromosomes can be associated with certain traits. Until now, we have only considered inheritance patterns among non-sex chromosomes, or autosomes. In addition to 22 homologous pairs of autosomes, human females have a homologous pair of X chromosomes, whereas human males have an XY chromosome pair (non-homologous). Although the Y chromosome contains a small region of similarity to the X chromosome so that they can pair during meiosis, the Y chromosome is much shorter and contains fewer genes. When a gene being examined is present on the X, but not the Y, chromosome, it is X-linked.

Eye color in Drosophila, the common fruit fly, was the first X-linked trait to be identified. Thomas Hunt Morgan mapped this trait to the X chromosome in 1910. Like humans, Drosophila males have an XY chromosome pair, and females are XX. In flies the wild-type eye color is red (X^W) and is dominant to white eye color (X^w) (Figure 9.15). Because of the location of the eye-color gene, reciprocal crosses do not produce the same offspring ratios. Males are said to be hemizygous, in that they have only one allele for any X-linked characteristic. Hemizygosity makes descriptions of dominance and recessiveness irrelevant for XY males. Drosophila males lack the white gene on the Y chromosome; that is, their genotype can only be X^WY (red eye) or X^wY (white eye). In contrast, females have two allele copies of this gene and can be X^WX^W(red eye), X^WX^w (red eye), or X^wX^w (white eye).

Figure 9.15 In Drosophila, the gene for eye color is located on the X chromosome. Red eye color is wild-type and is dominant to white eye color.

In an X-linked cross, the genotypes of F₁ and F₂ offspring do depend on whether the recessive trait was expressed by the male or the female in the P generation. With respect to Drosophila eye color, when the P male expresses the white-eye phenotype (X^wY) and the female is homozygously red-eyed ( X^WX^W), all members of the F₁ generation exhibit red eyes (Figure 9.16). The F₁ females are heterozygous (X^WX^w), and the males are all X^WY, having received their X chromosome from the homozygous dominant P female and their Y chromosome from the P male. A subsequent cross between the X^WX^w female and the X^WY male would produce only red-eyed females (with X^WX^W or X^WX^w genotypes) and both red- and white-eyed males (with X^WY or X^wY genotypes). Now, consider a cross between a homozygous white-eyed female and a male with red eyes. The F₁ generation would exhibit only heterozygous red-eyed females (X^WX^w) and only white-eyed males (X^wY). Half of the F₂ females would be red-eyed (X^WX^w) and half would be white-eyed (X^wX^w). Similarly, half of the F₂ males would be red-eyed (X^WY) and half would be white-eyed (X^wY).

Figure 9.16 Crosses involving sex-linked traits often give rise to different phenotypes for the different sexes of offspring, as is the case for this cross involving red and white eye color in Drosophila. In the diagram, w is the white-eye mutant allele and W is the wild-type, red-eye allele.

Discoveries in fruit fly genetics can be applied to human genetics. When a female parent is homozygous for a recessive X-linked trait, the parent will pass the trait on to 100 percent of the male offspring (all of her sons), because the males will receive the Y chromosome from the male parent. In humans, the alleles for certain conditions (some color-blindness, hemophilia, and muscular dystrophy) are X-linked. Females who are heterozygous for these diseases are said to be carriers and may not exhibit any phenotypic effects. These females will pass the disease to half of their male offspring and will pass carrier status to half of their female offspring; therefore, X-linked traits appear more frequently in males than females.

In some groups of organisms with sex chromosomes, the sex with the non-homologous sex chromosomes is the female rather than the male. This is the case for all birds. In this case, sex-linked traits will be more likely to appear in the female, in whom they are hemizygous, instead of the male.